This study extends trust theory by utilizing the perspectives of CV and PASP to establish the relationship between CV, PASP, and trust in OTDW. There is consensus on China’s CV characteristics, including high collectivism (COL), low power distance (LPD), strong uncertainty avoidance (UA), and matrilineal culture (Hofstede and Bond, 1988; Wong and Lau, 2001; Li and Xu, 2007; Tsang, 2011; Qiu et al., 2015). China, Japan, and Korea are typical representatives of high context (HC) cultures (Moura et al., 2015). In HC cultures, communication between two parties is not based solely on simple language, but rather relies on indirect methods such as common knowledge and shared experiences. Horng and Tsai (2010) emphasize that food is an essential local feature (LD) in tourism and is highly valuable to promote in OTDW. To effectively utilize COL, LPD, UA, HC, and LD to predict tourists’ online trust, it is important to ensure that the design of the OTDW is understandable and trustworthy for potential tourists.
Trust comes from the long-term accumulation of comprehensive factors that constitute a continuous trust evaluation system of tourism service capabilities, such as learning information through personal experience (Schneider, 2007). In this study, two indicators of Mayer’s trust theory, namely perceived goodwill (PB) and perceived sincerity (PI) (Mayer et al., 1995; Hall and Page, 2009; Taamneh et al., 2022), are used to evaluate the perceived trust of OTDWs. The measurement dimensions of power need to be adjusted as the research field changes (Mayer et al., 1995). Perceived tourism management power (PTMP), tourism information service capability, and the regional culture conveyed by OTDWs play a role in attracting, infecting, and impressing users (Hall and Page, 2009). The competence of regional management departments, such as perceived economic management power (PEMP) (Robin and Stephen, 2013) and resource management (Liu et al., 2019), also affect tourists’ perceptions and continued trust. This means that a comprehensive understanding of PASP that links different theories is crucial in this study as tourists absorb, select, and understand information through multiple interactions with OTDWs.The perceptions of value and reputation of OTDWs formed by tourists through this process have a significant impact on trust outcomes.
Hofstede Cultural Values (CV)
Websites are not a culturally neutral medium (Singh et al., 2003) because cultural values can influence tourists’ expectations, attitudes, and behaviors in various aspects of the tourism experience. Buhalis and Law (2008) analyzed OTDWs from 56 countries and found that cultural values such as COL, power distance, and masculinity/femininity influenced the design and content of these websites. They observed that countries with LPD had more egalitarian structures and casual language. Another related study by Kim et al. (2019) analyzed OTDWs from 20 Asian countries and confirmed that cultural values such as PD and COL influenced the content and functionality of these websites.
Both Singh et al. (2003) and Laosethakul and Boulton (2007) pointed out that China, Indonesia and Venezuela are typical representatives of low individualism, ranging from 15 to 48 points. As this study focuses on Chinese tourists, the COL traits are particularly relevant. High power distance cultures tend to generate a greater sense of distance, while LPD product evaluations are perceived as more beneficial and attractive (Filieri et al., 2018, Filieri et al., 2019). Risk and uncertainty are “inherent” in tourism (Holland, 2017). UA is how people deal with uncertainty and ambiguous situations (Hofstede et al., 1980). In relation to the need for personal safety, people find inner motivation to satisfy personal needs and reduce uncertainty (Li et al., 2013). Hall (1976) introduced the concept of HC culture, which is prevalent in Eastern countries, including China. Würtz (2005) believed that non-verbal communication is more effective than verbal communication in HC culture. This type of communication is conveyed indirectly, the meaning of the message is not directly conveyed but rather subtly implied through mood, gestures, facial expressions, and pictures, and meaning and context are inseparable. Characteristic tangible or intangible cultural resources, such as the unique healing practices of the Caribbean rainforest, ethnotourism, and cuisine in local restaurants, can be summarized as tourism LDs ( Yang et al., 2008 , Lin and Yeh, 2013 , Miocevich et al., 2022 ).
Cultural similarity is the other side of the tourist experience and can have both positive and negative effects on the tourist experience. Similar cultural backgrounds can generate positive perceptions and increase purchase intentions, but they can also reduce novelty and sensory stimulation, which are important for hedonic motivation in tourism (Goossens, 2000). Baack and Singh (2007) confirmed that websites that reflect similar cultural values generate positive perceptions in users, increase purchase intentions, and increase trust and loyalty. However, too much cultural difference can increase visitors’ anxiety, as different cultures have different sensitivities and effects on customers and tourists (Bhawuk and Brislin, 1992). For Chinese tourists, deeply rooted CV has a significant impact on their online behavior and decision-making process, even if it goes unnoticed (Power, 2009). OTDWs need to find a balance between the sense of security brought by tourists’ familiar CV and the mystery and excitement brought by the destination’s uncertain cultural values. The following hypotheses are based on the comprehensive interaction of Chinese CV components.
H1: COL of OTDW positively influences tourists’ perceived CV.
H2: OTDW’s LPD positively influences tourists’ perceived CV.
H3: UA at OTDW positively influences tourists’ perceived CV.
H4: OTDWs’ HC positively influences tourists’ perceived CV.
H5: OTDW’s LD positively influences tourists’ perceived CV.
Perceived Administrative Service Proficiency (PASP)
PASP is an indicator used by tourists to evaluate the level of government service capability (Nunkoo and Smith, 2013). Relying solely on the invisible hand of the market to organize and regulate may lead the tourism industry to eventually lose sight of its original intentions due to lack of proper coordination. According to the conceptual model, perceived impacts can be categorized into policy-related impacts and tourism-related impacts, including economic, socio-cultural, and environmental (Qin et al., 2019). Saptu et al., (2020) investigated the impact of perceived government support on Sabah youths’ attitudes toward agricultural entrepreneurship, perceived behavioral control, and the impact of social norms on agricultural entrepreneurship intentions. PASPs such as perceived government support have a significant impact on agricultural entrepreneurship, perceived behavioral control, and industrial economy.
The capabilities, PB and PI indicators in trust theory have a significant impact on tourist trust (Mayer et al., 1995). It is also important to note that this relationship can be complex, as the definition and operationalization of capabilities may vary across studies and different aspects of this construct may have other effects on PASP. The institutional theory of political trust is based on a hypothetical trust that includes the three indicators of PEMP (Hetherington et al., 1998). Compared to the other two indicators, the impact of PEMP as perceived by the general public is more direct and has a shorter cycle. PEMP encourages capital accumulation and stimulates economic expansion (Nunkoo and Smith, 2013). Governments can do the same in the tourism economy (Bevir, 2009), for example by increasing sustainable tourism economy construction projects that affect daily life (Bramwell, 2011). PTMP is the level at which residents perceive their local government’s tourism management capabilities and directly influences residents’ trust in the tourism management sector ( Wong et al., 2011 , Nunkoo and Gursoy, 2012 ), and residents’ perceptions of PTMP have been found to positively influence their trust in government in the real world ( Oskarsson et al., 2009 , PerOla and Torsten, 2010 , Nunkoo and Ramkissoon, 2012 ).
Similar to PB, honesty of others has been shown to increase trust (Colquitt et al., 2007). However, there are situations in which it seems necessary to sacrifice honesty to do good and vice versa. Conflicts between PB and PI occur frequently (Lupoli et al., 2018; Moore et al., 2019). Tourists expect PB to reflect efforts to serve the government’s interests during development, which requires that governments prioritize tourists’ needs without being driven solely by profits, whether tourists are aware of it or not (Mcknight et al., 1998; Belanger and Carter, 2008). PI and service quality have a significant impact on PB and privacy concerns (Janssen et al., 2018). In such challenging situations, PB and PI conveyed by OTDW require special attention. The following hypotheses are formulated based on the comprehensive interaction of the constructs. Based on these observations, we hypothesize the following:
H6: PEMP in OTDW positively influences tourists’ PASP.
H7: OTDW’s PTMP positively influences tourists’ PASP.
H8: OTDW PB positively influences tourists’ PASP.
H9: PI of OTDW has a positive effect on PASP.
trust
Trust plays an important role in travel decisions and influences tourists’ satisfaction, happiness, and loyalty (Harris and Goode, 2004, Kim, 2012, Lee et al., 2019). Trust can be divided into online trust (Kim et al., 2011) and offline trust (Abubakar et al., 2017). When using e-government websites, citizens’ trust is formed primarily by their evaluation of the personnel responsible for developing, maintaining, and monitoring the system, rather than the system itself (Dashti et al., 2009). This indicates that the dimension of trust, i.e., PASP, is important in networked environments. In particular, in situations where the competence, goodwill, and sincerity of trustees are uncertain or where limited information is available, an individual’s tendency to trust becomes even more important. Belanger and Carter (2008) found that the tendency to trust has a significant impact on both Internet trust and government trust. When government agencies provide accurate and comprehensive information, public trust increases, which in turn increases residents’ trust in their government ( Rousseau et al., 1998 ).
Culture plays a key role in shaping the responses of consumers, including tourists, from their decision-making process and purchase intention to loyalty and stickiness (Hofstede et al., 1999). The quality of CV in a virtual travel community significantly influences tourists’ trust, which in turn influences their attitude toward the website and their transaction intention (Bhawuk and Brislin, 1992; Elliot et al., 2013). Although trust does not directly affect website stickiness or transaction intention (Elliot et al., 2013), trust is important in reducing uncertain risks, especially when people have limited cognition in their decision-making process (Grabner-Kraeuter, 2002). Tourists can increase their cultural competence through sustainable social activities such as pursuing spiritual experiences, which in turn may affect their CV perceptions (Woodside, 2000; Tung and Ritchie, 2011).
OTDWs serve not only as an important platform for disseminating official tourism information, but also as a platform for demonstrating the service capabilities of the government. Residents in China, Korea, and Japan have a positive tendency toward experts and authorities, so well-known online brands are more likely to be accepted and trusted by consumers (Zeithaml et al., 2002). Government service capabilities and corresponding policy performance are the strongest indicators of public trust (Robin and Stephen, 2013). Once trust is established, it positively impacts brand recognition and also positively impacts transaction willingness. This finding suggests the fragility of consumer trust and also reflects Chinese consumers’ extreme caution toward online transactions (Chen et al., 2008; Lin and Yeh, 2013). It is important to understand how PASPs affect tourists’ trust in OTDWs.
H10: OTDW CV positively influences tourists’ PASP.
H11: OTDW CV positively influences tourists’ trust.
H12: OTDW PASP positively influences tourists’ trust.
Overall, the theoretical framework of the OTDW tourist trust model proposed in this paper is shown in Figure 1 .
Figure 1
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